European Journal of Molecular & Clinical Medicine

Some bacteria become resistant to many different antibioticsare called as multidrugresistant. Multidrug-resistant bacteria isdifficult to treat andspread the antibiotic resistance gene. Methicillin, as the first beta-lactamase resistant penicillin, was used to treat Staphylococcusaureus infection in 1961. The first methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was identified in the United Kingdom in the same year. It appeared in the United States in 1981 among intravenous drug users. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important agent of hospital-acquired infection.

Background: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are frequent forms of disease. In order
to define or improve empirical antibiotic therapy, it is necessary to generate data on the
current spectrum and susceptibility profile of bacteria associated with community-acquired
SSTIs.
Material and Methods: The clinicalsamples were obtained from 600 out-patients and the inpatientswith
community acquired skin and soft tissue infections.All clinical samples were
inoculated on the routine laboratorymedia. Antibiotic sensitivity testing was performed as per
standard guidelines.
Results:Out of 600 patients with community acquired skinand soft tissue infections, 258
(43%) were diagnosedwith abscess followed by cellulitis 145 (24.2%).Gram positive cocci
accounted for 92.27% of total isolates. Staph. aureus was the predominant pathogen
accounting for 78.75% of total isolates. Amongst the Gram negative isolates, P. aeruginosa
was predominant pathogen 7.72%.71 (19.34%)strains of MRSA were detected in the present
series.Sensitivity to other antimicrobials varied from 6.3% (penicillin G) to 97%
(clindamycin).All the strains of P. aeruginosa were found to be sensitive to the
antipseudomonal agent ceftazidime and to amikacin. The sensitivity of Pseudomonas strains
to other antimicrobials ranged from 52.8% to 97.22%.

Orthopaedic implant site infection is one of the major surgical site infection in orthopaedic surgery with high morbidity and mortality. Due to the use of implants, which are foreign to the body, orthopaedic trauma surgery is at the grave risk of microbial contamination. Overall 5% of the internal fixation devises get infected. The incidence of infection after internal fixation of closed fractures is generally lower (0.5-1%), where as in case of internal fixation of open fractures, the incidence is still higher and may exceed 30%. The prevalence of orthopaedic implant site infection reported in India is about 2.6%.

Background:A surgical site infection is an infection that occurs after surgery in the part of the body where the surgery took place. SSIs previously called Post-operative wound infection result from bacterial contamination during or after a surgical procedure.Surgical Site Infection (SSI) by definition refers to an infection which occurs within 30 days after the surgery or within 1 year when an implant is left in place after the surgery and involving the incision or deep tissues at the operated site or infections involving organ or body space other than the incision, which was opened or manipulated during an operation. Surgical site infections (SSI) constitute a major public health problem worldwide and are the second most frequently reported nosocomial infections. They are responsible for increasing the treatment cost, length of hospital stays and significant morbidity and mortality. A surgical site infection is an infection that occurs after surgery in the part of the body where the surgery took place. This study is an attempt to know the pre-operative, Operative and post-operative factors predisposing to Surgical site infections and the bacteriological profile of those infection so as to establish Antibiotic guidelines in our tertiary care centre.
Materials and Methods: All adult male and female patients of age more than 18 yrs undergoing abdominal surgeries for various reasons were included in the study. This prospective study was conducted in the department of general surgery in SVS Medical College between 1-6-2020 to 6-5-2021.
Results: This study included 100 patients who underwent abdominal surgery, out of which 30 patients developed Surgical site infections. So the incidence is 30%. Incidence of SSI among males was 29.3 % whereas incidence of infection among females was 33.3 %. Clean wounds had least SSI (6.7%) and the Dirty wounds had the highest SSI (50%). Using drain was associated with increased incidence of SSI (44%) and mesh usage was not associated with SSI. SSI was most commonly detected on Post op day (POD) 4 (20 out of 45 cases). The SSI rate increased with increasing age and it also increased significantly with the increasing duration of pre-operative hospitalization. The SSI rate was significantly higher in emergency surgeries as compared to the elective surgeries. The infection rate was significantly higher as the duration of the surgery increased. The most commonly isolated organism from surgical site infections were Enterococci (22.2%) and staphylococcus aureus (22.2%) and other bacteria. Most of the organisms which were isolated were multidrug resistant. The high rate of resistance to many antibiotics underscored the need for a policy that could promote more rational use of antibiotics.
Conclusion: The rate of SSI observed in this study was comparable to other similar studies, however we observed a higher degree of antimicrobial resistance. Adherence to strict infection control measures, maintenance of proper hand hygiene and optimal preoperative, intraoperative and postoperative patient care will surely reduce the incidence of SSIs.

Background:Major cause of mortality in low-income countries is respiratory infections
which are also the third most common cause of death globally. VAP (Ventilator-associated
pneumonia) is a vital form of hospital-acquired pneumonia which signifies pneumonia seen
in subjects that are mechanically ventilated for a minimum of 48 hours following
tracheostomy or tracheal intubation
Aims: The present study was conducted to assess the microbiological profile in subjects with
Ventilator-associated pneumonia and to assess the bacterial profile in these subjects. The
study also assessed the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of bacteria linked with ventilatorassociated
pneumonia.

Introduction: Surgical site infections (SSI) constitute a major public health problem worldwide and are the second most frequently reported nosocomial infections. They are responsible for increasing the treatment cost, length of hospital stay and significant morbidity and mortality.Aim: To isolate, identify and study bacteriological profile of surgical site infections,with  antibiogram.Materials and Methods: Samples were collected using sterile cotton swabs from 190 patients clinically diagnosed of having SSIs and were processed as per standard microbiological techniques. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done using modified Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. This Prospective study was conducted for a period of one year (January 2016 to December 2016) in the Department of Microbiology at Yenepoya Medical college hospital, Mangalore, India.Results:. Out of total 190 samples, 170 (89.4%) yielded bacterial growth.Most common predisposing factors causing surgical site infections were patients having Diabetes mellitus(23.53%) followed by Smokers(14.12),Hypertension(11.76).Escherichia coli (24.12%) was the commonest organism followed by Staphylococcus aureus(18.82%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (18.24%) and Coagulase negative Staphylococcus species (14.12%). Antimicrobial profile of gram positive isolates revealed maximum sensitivity to Vancomycin, Teicoplanin and Linezolid, whereas among gram negative isolates Imepenem, Piperacillin-tazobactam, and Amikacin were found to be most sensitive.Conclusion: The rate of SSI observed in this study was comparable to other similar studies, however we observed a higher degree of antimicrobial resistance. Adherence to strict infection control measures, maintenance of proper hand hygiene and optimal preoperative, intraoperative and postoperative patient care will surely reduce the incidence of SSIs.

Staphylococcus aureus is an important infectious pathogen in health sector and communities. S. aureus was first described by the Scottish surgeon Alexander Ogaston in surgical abscess in 1881. It causes various infections ranged between simple to life threating infections. Owing potent toxins and other virulence factors enabled the bacteria to be very virulent. Additionally, acquisition of antimicrobial resistant genes increased the challenge in treating the infections caused by bacteria especially methicillin resistant S. aureus strains (MRSA) that are often multidrug resistant strains. The circulation of MRSA between health settings and communities resulted in changing even the genetic map for the strains in both places. Vancomycin was used for years and still acts as the drug of choice for treating MRSA infections but recently the resistance to vancomycin has risen and vancomycin resistant S. aureus were recorded. Consequently, different regimes were used like combination of antibiotics to reduce the resistance rate to antibiotics if they were used as a single drug and practiced the control measures at health settings to reduce the spread of MRSA strains. At last, global health organizations call for research and finding new antibiotics agents and put MRSA on the top list of infectious agents that need more antibiotics.

Recent development in the synthesis of nanoparticles relies on the use of green chemistry with safe, biocompatible materials to manufacture composites, structures, and formulations based on nano for specific applications. The basic goal of green nanoparticle synthesis is to make use of the element's specific physicochemical and biological properties by linking bioactive from prokaryotes and eukaryotes for applications in various basic and applied science fields. Biogenic methods have the potential to provide advanced strategies for surface/material modification in the increasing carbonaceous materials market.
Garlic is an extensively studied herb known for possessing a wide variety of bioactive. The major proportion of garlic bioactive is organosulfur or thiol based organic compounds that have numerous biological and therapeutic activities and thus target biogenic nanocomponents and formulations for synthesis. There is, however, very scant literature on its use in the agriculture sector. The present review focuses on the synthesis of garlic related nanoparticles and their applications across various scientific fields, and their potential environmental implications when used in agriculture.

Background: S.aureus is an increasing cause of infections in both immunities and hospitals. It is also a frequent colonizer of the skin and nose. The incidence of hospital-acquired and community-acquired S.aureus infection has risen associated with the simultaneous increase of drug-resistant strains called methicillin resistance S.aureus.Aims and objectives: To determine S. aureus and MRSA's nasal carriage rate among healthcare workers of a teaching hospital, detect the mecA gene, MIC of Vancomycin, and Mupirocin in MRSA isolates.Materials and methods: A total of 285 health care workers from a teaching hospital of coastal Karnataka has participated in this study. Both anterior nares were swabbed and processed in the microbiology laboratory. Standard bacteriological methods identified isolates. PCR confirmed MRSA strains. Results: A total of 285 healthcare workers in a teaching hospital were screened for nasal carriage of S.aureus. Out of 285, 45 (15.8 %) healthcare workers were screened positive for S.aureus. Fifteen (5.3%) were Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA). All the MRSA strains were confirmed by mecA gene detection by PCR.Conclusion: The rate of prevalence of MRSA carriage (5.3°/c) in healthcare workers was relatively low. There was no vancomycin-resistant S.umum.t, and MIC creep to vancomycin to MRSA was not observed. Two mupirocin- resistant .S. aureus and significant numbers of Methicillin-Resistant Coagulase Negative Staphylococcus (MRCoNS) were identified. These findings highlight the urgency for application to infection control measures that aim to decrease M RSA transmission.

Objective: To know about the various pathogens causing infection in orthopaedic implant surgeries and their antibiotic sensitivities.
Methods: This prospective study was conducted jointly in Departments of Orthpaedics and Trauma of Kausar Hospital, Afghan Hospital and Emergency Hospital, Kabul, from April 2019 to April 2020. All patients having close fractures of long bones including humerus, radius/ulna, femur and tibia requiring open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) were included. Patients data was noted on a preformed proforma. Patients were followed up to 6 months.
Results: 30 patients out of 650 developed Surgical site infection were selected. 23 were male and 7 were female patients. Age range was from 5-75 years. Staphyloccus Aureus including Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus Aureus MRSA was most common cultured organism, followed by E Coli and pseudomonas. 23 cases yielded single organism, 5 cases yielded 2 organisms, 1 case yielded 3 organisms. There was no organism growth in one case.
Conclusion: Staphylococcus Aureus including MRSA is the main cause of surgical site infection in orthopedics implant surgery. Other bacteria like E.Coli may cause surgical site infection. Antibiotics should be prescribed according to culture and sensitivity reports.

Aim: An analysis and comparison of the many testing procedures used in the laboratory to identify methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus. Materials and Methods: The research looked at a total of one hundred different Staphylococcus aureus strains. The strains were validated by slide and tube coagulase tests that were conducted with the conventional approach. The oxacillin screen agar was prepared using the direct colony suspension technique, and the turbidity was matched with 0.5 McFarland standards. On Mueller-Hinton agar that contained 5% NaCl and was supplemented with 6 g/ml of oxacillin, the suspension was inoculated. The plates were then kept in an incubator for 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius. It was determined that any growth that occurred on the plate that contained oxacillin was resistant to methicillin. Results: For the purpose of this investigation, one hundred different strains of Staphylococcus aureus were used. Oxacillin screen agar, cefoxitin disc diffusion, and oxacillin disc diffusion are the three standard procedures that were carried out. In addition to that, MIC determination was carried out. After that, the MIC determination was contrasted with the traditional testing techniques. It was possible to determine both their sensitivity and specificity. The MIC determination was used as the benchmark for quality control. It was possible to compute the total number of organisms that had MIC at each of the varied antibiotic concentrations. It was discovered that 6 species, or 6% of the total, had a MIC of 64 g/ml. However, the highest number of organisms that demonstrated a MIC of 32 g/ml was 37 (37%). The number of organisms that had MIC values of less than or equal to 0.5, 1,2,4,8, and 16 ranged from 9 (9%), to 2 (2%), to 15 (15%), to 9 (9%), to 10 (10%), and to 12 (12%), respectively. It was discovered that about 15 out of 26 MSSA strains, or 57.69 percent, displayed a higher range MIC of 2. Conclusion: It was discovered that all three methods were similarly sensitive and specific. We do, however, suggest that any two of these procedures be used in conjunction with one another in order to get the desired level of precision.